The main theme of the chapter is, how do cultural traditions arise? is it political, social or economic conditions? Or is the human imagination despite environment?
In 500 B.C.E. - a big boom of cultural traditions emerged in the following areas:
China-Confucianism and Daoism
India-Hinduism and Buddhism
Middle East-monotheistic tradition, Zoroastrianism, based on the prophet Zarathustra.
Israel-Judaism,Prophets are Amos, Jeremiah, and Isaiah
Greece-rational thinkers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and others.
Chinese and Greek philosophy are similar in thought in regards to the affairs of the world and human rationality to understand reality. Whereas Indian, Persian, and Jewish cultures were more religious and dealt with the Realm of the Divine and its relationship to human life. All the previously mentioned groups had practiced polytheism. Polytheism is based on the Gods and Spirits, seen as powerful beings who are the root cause of all things. In order to placate these Gods and Spirits humans would perform rituals and sacrifices.
CHINA during the "Age of Warring States"(403-221 B.C.E.) was going thru great turmoil and disorder. Thinkers of this time were seeking answers to regain former the peace and tranquility during the Zhou Dynasty(1122 B.C.E.). They proposed three different schools of thought:
Legalism- to govern the civilization through strict rules or laws enforced through rewards and harsh punishments. This inspired rule in China During the Shihuangdi and Qin Dynasty(221-206 B.C.E.). This was not successful, but is still used as a base model.
The Han and following Dynasties based their rule on "Confucius" teaching.
Confucianism- born in Lu, China, into a aristocratic family. His teachings are collected in a volume titled "Analects". He influenced Asian culture immensely, China, Korea, and Japan. His philosophy is that order and tranquility is not obtained through laws and punishments but with REN. Ren is defined as human heartedness, benevolence, goodness, nobility and heart.
He believed that society is based on unequal relationships:
Father - Son
Husband - Wife
Older Brother - Younger Brother
Ruler - Subject
The woman's role was also dictated to yield, be humble, honor her chastity, not to cause trouble, not to gossip, and choose her words wisely. Her responsibilities were to cook, clean and do anything that required her to better serve her husband.
If one treats these relationships with sincerity, benevolence and genuine concern, the lesser party will respond in a positive(deference and obedience) manner and harmony will be achieved.
These virtues were to be achieved through a broad education, rituals, ceremonies and filial piety. This education encompassed language, literature, history, philosophy and ethics as it applied to government. Filial Piety is respect for parents and senior members of family. The family was considered a mini model of political life to be governed by "Confucianism". To this day it is ingrained in education, government and culture.
Daoism- Its founder is Laozi, a 6th Cent. B.C.E. archivist. He wrote "Daodejing"(The Way and Its Power). Daoism is in opposite view of Confucianism. It is mor spontaneous, individualistic and natural. Its emphasis is on nature and its mysteries. The Dao is "Way of Nature", it meant withdrawal from self improvement, political and social activism. It defined life as circular.
The Dao and Confucianism are both embraced, unity of opposites, symbolized by a "yin & yang".
INDIA birthplace of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Hinduism- Has no historical founder and it did not seek converts. It grew from a particular people and territory. It is an amalgamation of influences, it reflects the diversity of the people who migrated or invaded the south Asian peninsula. Hinduism is based on the 'Vedas". The "Vedas" are a collection ancient poems, hymns, prayers and rituals. It was compiled by Brahmins(priests). The vedas were traditionally passed down orally, then in 600 B.C.E. it was written in Sanskrit. People became dissatisfied with the Brahmin's need for money to perform prayers and rituals. From this dissatisfaction grew the "Upanishads". The "Upanishads" were written by anonymous thinkers, it delved into the meaning of sacrifices in the Vedas, a more introspective thinking.
"Brahman" thinking is the idea of the World Soul, it is beyond reality and material objects. It is a primal unitary energy or divine reality. It is infusing of all things(similar to the Dao), our life as humans(sense if being) is an illusion.
Atman-is the individual human soul and is a part of Brahman. The goal in Hinduism is to reach Moksha. Moksha is the liberation, the union of Atman and Brahman. Reaching moksha ends the cycle of rebirth(is painful). How is one to achieve this goal? It is through Samsara. Samsara, considered rebirth or reincarnation. The soul migrates body to body, over many lifetimes. Depending on ones actions during his/her lifetime, your rebirth result will be determined. The caste you will be born into is dependent on your "karma". Moksha can also be achieved through knowledge and study and leading a spiritual life. Leading a spiritual life means, detachment of action in the world, doing work without regard to consequences, with passion and devotion to a deity, and meditation(such as a wandering ascetics, Brahmin priests).
Buddhism- emerged same time as Hinduism but it is distinct and separate. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama( 566- 486 B.C.E.). He reached enlightenment at age 35, and was a Prince. His goal was understand "suffering and to end suffering". His idea was through modest living and leading a moral life one could reach enlightenment or "Nirvana". The state of nirvana is, no individual, no greed, no hatred or delusion.
Serenity is filled with love, kindness, compassion and ordinary life is an illusion(this idea originates from Hinduism). In Buddhism, release from rebirth can be achieved on a personal level and a Brahmin is not needed. Buddha did not believe in the caste system. He felt that everyone was responsible for his/her own spiritual development. Questions concerning God and creation were not relevant because it served no purpose to achieve enlightenment.
According Hinduism and based on the "Laws of Manu" the female child is subject to the father and the female youth to her husband. When the husband dies the wife is then subject to her sons. A women must never be independent. In Buddhism, women were allowed as nuns but were subordinate to monks. Nuns were allowed to run their own affairs, forbidden to do chores and were devoted to the "Awakening".
Several interpretations of Buddhism exist, but there are two main schools of thought:
Theravada-sees Buddha as a wise teacher and model. It is more psychological based, practices vs. beliefs. Individuals are responsible for themselves.
Mahayana(Great Vehicle)- believe in or follow, Bodhisattvas, spiritually developed people(super-beings). They are here to assist others to enlightenment. Buddha is seen as a God. This type of practice allows a greater amount of people to reach enlightenment, "Great Vehicle".
As Buddhism dies in India, Hinduism gets revived with some Buddhist influence. The emphasis is ordinary people could achieve enlightenment or Moksha, by performing everyday duties in their lives. Another path is, devotion of a God/ Goddess.
Monotheism- a single supreme deity responsible for creation and goodness a universal religion open to all mankind, negative aspect is it is exclusive and intolerant to other faiths and challenged polytheism.
ZOROATRIANISM originated from the Persian Empire. Founded by prophet Zarathustra(6-7 Cent. B.C.E.). Belief in one God, "Ahura Mazda", whom rules the world with all truth light and goodness. There will be a day of judgement, those who believe in Ahura Mazada will be granted eternal life in paradise, those who do not will be condemned to everlasting punishment. Its emphasis is on free will of humankind and its struggle to choose between Good and Evil is constant.
This faith spread to Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. But declined when Alexander the Great conquered them. Few survived and is still practiced today in India known as Parsis("Persians"). Despite the decline, its roots can be seen in Judaism, Christianity and Islamic religions.
JUDAISM traditions recorded in Old Testament. Hebrews migrated from Mesopotamia to Palestine, under the leadership of Abraham. A portion later fled to Egypt, where they were enslaved and later freed. They rejoined in Palestine, then split into to factions
North - Israel, assimilated into Assyrian culture
South - Judah, conquered by Babylonians but retained "Jewish" heritage.
Their God is known as Yahweh and its beliefs are based on the 10 Commandments. Yahweh is divine, but one could actively communicate with him. Singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, social justice and moral righteousness. No sacrifices and rituals.
Classical Greek and the Rational Order
Greeks were similar in thought to the Chinese, the world is a physical reality governed by natural laws. Humans through these natural laws choose a system of moral and ethical life. Cultural tradition is not based on religion, it is separate.
practices that existed;
secrete fertility cults
oracles-predict the future
mythology - Gods and Goddesses of Mt. Olympus
Greek thinkers were rational and non-religious in their quest for explaining reasoning:
Pythagoras-beneath chaos lay a foundation of unchangeable mathematical order
Hippocrates-"Humors", four fluids the body was composed of, ailments were cause when these fluids were out of balance.
Herodotus- men and humans are the reasons for conflict not the whims of Gods.
Plato- "The Republic", the basic design for a good society ruled by highly educated "Guardians" led by a "Philosopher-King".
Among all the Greek thinkers, Aristotle(384-322 B.C.E.) is the most prominent. He was student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He is known for the following: empirical observation, he cataloged the constitutions of 158 Greek city-states, identified over 100 of species of animals, wrote about logic, physics, astronomy, weather etc., on ethic's "virtue" could be trained and cultivated, and believed in a mixed system of government which combined principles of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.
Jesus and Christianity
appears 500 yrs. after Confucius, Buddha and Zarathustra. He was a carpenter that came from a rural small-town. His emphasis was love and compassion, especially for the destitute. Christianity is not tolerant of other religions and it is not polytheistic but it does celebrate several saints. It does have some Jewish roots, such as the 10 Commandments. Christianity separates into two main factions, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.
Questions for Chapter 5 - Eurasian Cultural Traditions
1. Based on Confucianism, what tone is set regarding a woman's role?
A woman's role is to be subordinate to all male figures throughout her lifetime, to father, to husband and to son. To yield and be humble before them. To honor her chastity, not to gossip or cause trouble, clean and prepare meals - anything that is required to better serve her husband.
2. What are the differences of Hinduism vs. Buddhism?
Hinduism vs. Buddhism, there is some cross over themes, regards to "moksha" (enlightenment) and rebirth, "Samsara" and release from it. The differences lies in how one achieves this and the motivation behind it.
Hinduism has no historical founder and is built upon ancient text called the Vedas.It is caste based and its belief is what you do in your lifetime(karma) here on this earth will dictate what your outcome or rebirth will be. Also earlier belief was that enlightenment could only be achieved through Brahmins(priests), but this later evolves with the introduction of Buddhism. Enlightenment can be also achieved through ordinary duties and devotion to Gods/Goddesses.
Buddhism is founded by Siddhartha Gautama. It is based on idea of "suffering and its release from it. Buddhism is accessible to all mankind, and each is responsible for his/her own enlightenment. Buddhism does not believe in the caste system. Nirvana can be achieved without Brahmins but through a modest and moral life combined with meditation.
3. Who is Socrates?
His lifetime is approximately 469- 399 B.C.E. He was an Athenian philosopher, who exemplified Greek way of thinking. He did not write his thoughts, but preferred to teach through questioning. He questioned assumptions and logic of his students. He emphasized importance of wisdom and virtue. He challenged the wealth and the power. He also admired the Greek enemies, the Spartans. Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth and sentenced to death.
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